In Canto IX Virgil and Dante and made it into the City of Dis with the help of an angel sent from God. Once inside they come onto a plain that is covered with smoking and flaming tombs of some kind. Either graves with stone lids or a mausoleum of some sort with stone doors. They are in the 6th circle and those punished here are Heretics.
And now, along the narrow pathway that ran
Between those tortures and the city wall,
I followed my master. “O matchless power,” I began
“Who lead me through evil’s circles at your will,
Speak to me with the answers that I crave
About these souls and the sepulchers they fill:
Might they be seen? The cover of each grave
Is lifted open, and no one is on guard.”
“When they return from Jehoshaphat above,”
He answered, “bearing the bodies that they had
All shall be closed. Here Epicurus lies
With all his followers, who call the soul dead
When the flesh dies.
Here are those who are more dead than the dead! They are the dead entombed in sepulchres in the land of the dead! They call this a “trope”.
The term trope derives from the Greek τρόπος (tropos), “turn, direction, way”, derived from the verb τρέπειν (trepein), “to turn, to direct, to alter, to change”. A trope is any word used in a figurative sense (i.e., a figure of speech) or a reoccurring theme or device in a work of literature. A literary trope is the use of figurative language, via word, phrase or an image, for artistic effect. The word trope has also come to be used for describing commonly recurring literary and rhetorical devices, motifs or clichés in creative works. Any figure of speech in which a word or phrase conveys a meaning other than its literal sense. For instance, the phrase broken heart and the use of Wall Street to refer to the U.S. finance industry are tropes because their literal meanings are different from what we understand them to mean. In recent usage, however, trope is a catchall for any familiar thing that recurs in art, media, politics, or social interaction, even if the recurring element is not figurative. Something such as an idea, phrase, or image that is often used in a particular artist’s work, in a particular type of art.
A list of labels for these literary devices:
Allegory – A sustained metaphor continued through whole sentences or even through a whole discourse. For example: “The ship of state has sailed through rougher storms than the tempest of these lobbyists.”
Antanaclasis – The stylistic trope of repeating a single word, but with a different meaning each time; antanaclasis is a common type of pun, and like other kinds of pun, it is often found in slogans.
Euphemism: A euphemism is a polite or mild word or expression used to refer to something embarrassing, taboo, or unpleasant.
Hyperbole – the use of exaggeration to create a strong impression.
Irony – Creating a trope through implying the opposite of the standard meaning, such as describing a bad situation as “good times”.
Litotes – ironic understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of its contrary. Ex. “Thank you, ma’am, you won’t regret it.” The negation is an understatement when what you really mean is that your boss will be happy with your performance.
Meiosis: Meiosis is a figure of speech that minimizes the importance of something through euphemism.
Metaphor – An explanation of an object or idea through juxtaposition of disparate things with a similar characteristic, such as describing a courageous person as having a “heart of a lion”.
Metonymy – A trope through proximity or correspondence. For example, referring to actions of the U.S. President as “actions of the White House”.
Oxymoron – a combination of contradictory or incongruous words (such as cruel kindness)
Synecdoche – Related to metonymy and metaphor, creates a play on words by referring to something with a related concept: for example, referring to the whole with the name of a part, such as “hired hands” for workers; a part with the name of the whole, such as “the law” for police officers; the general with the specific, such as “bread” for food; the specific with the general, such as “cat” for a lion; or an object with its substance, such as “bricks and mortar” for a building.
Catachresis – improper use of metaphor
To me, this trope seems to be an hyperbole. How much deader can you get? An exaggeration indeed! It sort of reminds me of myself and my wedding rings. I have my earliest wedding ring (we’ve been married well over 40 years now) that was etched around the outside. When I put on weight, I could no longer wear my beloved ring. With the etching, it couldn’t be sized. So I had it made into a necklace. I bought 2 more wedding rings to wear like ring guards with my diamond. Then Stan grew out of his wedding ring which I wear on my thumb. So when I’m wearing my necklace, my wedding rings and his wedding ring… how much more married can I get? LOL!
What is heresy? It is a belief or opinion contrary to orthodox religious (especially Christian) doctrine. A heretic is one who willfully and persistently rejects the truth of the church’s established beliefs and doctrines. We are not just talking about differences in opinions on unimportant things. We are talking about important doctrines that have been established and then promoted through centuries for good reason. Core doctrines of the Christian faith that cannot be tampered with. For instance the virgin birth of Jesus Christ, His death on the cross, His burial, His resurrection cannot be rejected without serious consequences. If you reject Jesus Christ, you are not a Christian.
The first churches were established after Jesus Christ’s death by those who had followed Him as Disciples during His life. After He was resurrected and spent time with His disciples, He finally ascended into Heaven where He sits at the right hand of God. From there He sent the Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost to His believers and followers, the disciples. The Holy Spirit fell upon them as they prayed together and flames of fire appeared over their heads and they began to speak in other tongues. Thousands heard them preaching in their different languages and were converted to belief in Jesus Christ as the Messiah and Savior. They became the first church. But Jesus had commissioned the Disciples to go into the world and take the Gospel, the Good news of salvation through Him, to others, even the Gentiles. The persecution of the early church led to a scattering of believers who took the Gospel wherever they went. The 12 disciples who were Jesus’ closest followers lost Judas because of his betrayal of Christ and subsequent suicide. They became 11 disciples who then voted on another man to join them as the 12th. He had been with them since the beginning too and had personally known Jesus Christ. Paul had the Damascus Road experience where Jesus appeared to him and told him to preach the Gospel. So there were then 13 men commissioned personally by Jesus Christ who became what we call the first Apostles. As the church grew, church government had to grow too. Others became evangelists, apostles, preachers, teachers, deacons or elders as churches began to pop up. When you read the New Testament letters to the churches, written by the Apostles, you see immediately they had a problem. With more and more people converting and churches springing up all over, there was a great need for doctrine and teaching because false teachings were getting into the churches. The original 13 Apostles couldn’t be everywhere at once and so people were left to the threat of false teachings. It’s one reason why the Apostles wrote their letters, to deliberately, in writing, refute false teaching and give their churches truth. You can only imagine though, as the original Apostles and believers died and the church continued to grow and spread, that it became very important to establish those doctrines so that all the churches knew the truth, practised and worshipped accordingly. So Christian scholars would regularly get together in a sort of convention, called ecumenical councils, to hash out these doctrines of belief and establish the founding blocks of orthodox Christianity. They also established what would go into our Bible. We call those books, that made it past the scholars and into our Holy Bible, the Cannon. There were other letters and manuscripts that were considered, but for reasons of provenance and orthodoxy, were not accepted into the Bible we know today. Unfortunately, it never stopped with the basic doctrines. The different denominations and schisms throughout Christian history have been caused because someone has gone too far. The original catholic (as in, “church universal”) church eventually, through power politics and greed, got way off track. In response the Orthodox churches broke away from the Catholic churches. Then the Anglican church broke off from the Catholic church. Then the Reformation occurred where protestants broke away from the Catholic church. And the protestant churches have split into numerous denominations since the Reformation.
Many people along the way of history thought they had a different interpretation, or even secret teachings of Jesus, that nobody else had. They would preach these heresies and collect followers. Jesus, Himself, warned of false prophets and false teachers. So did all his Apostles in their letters to their churches. It was important to Jesus and His Apostles that Christians know and accept the truths of Jesus’ teachings and His life. God made a way for the Bible and Christian doctrine, based on the Bible, to come through the centuries to us today. It was not an easy journey and would take God’s supernatural intervention to make sure His Word and Truth made it safely through. Many people died so that we might have the Holy Bible today. People who disagreed with the Catholic Church (which had become so corrupted) were burned at the stake. People who translated the Bible into common modern languages were persecuted. Interpreting the Bible into common languages, instead of the ancient classical languages of Hebrew, Greek and Latin, gave power to the people and took power away from the Catholic church. So you can imagine how hard it was to get a Bible translated into everyday language. Then there was the problem of printing. How do you get a Bible into the hands of everyone in the times before printing presses? They were carefully copied by scribes and monks over centuries until the printing press became available. The Bibles we have today are the product of many centuries of careful study, careful copying, scholarly focus and supernatural protection from God. A Bible was sometimes the most valuable asset a family had. It was very expensive and was the Word of God. So it was kept in a locked Bible box for protection. I have seen a Bible box at a local plantation here in Spartanburg. The family came from Europe with their Bible in the Bible box. It was set in their home by the front door. The entire family knew that if the house caught on fire (a very real possibility in frontier and colonial times), the Bible box was the one thing they should try to save. Everything else, except for lives, could be replaced. But in those frontier times, getting another Bible was about out of the question. Many countries around the world today make owning a Bible a capital offense. Muslim countries hate Christians, their churches, their Bibles. As have communist and socialist countries.
The fact that we enjoy a free education in America that gives us the ability to read and study the Bible is a blessing from God. The fact that we have Bibles of every translation, study resources, churches and Christian higher education, church doctrines established… all easily available to us, is a supernatural blessing from God. But we have, as a nation, become more ignorant of God and His Word than probably any other generation since the first church. This is unconscionable and shameful! Most people, if they were asked couldn’t give you the Ten Commandments, the Lord’s Prayer, the 23rd Psalm, John 3:16, the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit or the Golden Rule… they couldn’t do it. They have no idea of the basic Bible stories or teachings of Jesus Christ. It has allowed for many heresies too. Strange things that have crept into people’s minds. They will believe in fairies, but not in Jesus Christ. They will believe in ghosts and demons but not in Jesus Christ. They will believe in aliens but not in Jesus Christ. They will believe in Indian spirits and totem poles but not in Jesus Christ. They will practise satanism, witchcraft, demonology, New Age, humanism but won’t believe in Jesus Christ. They will believe in the power of rocks, trees, dirt, pyramids, herbs, magnets, summer solstice, winter solstice, etc, etc, etc but refuse to believe in the Creator of these created things. If there is any power in a rock, God put it there and you should worship the God who created rocks, not the rock itself. I definitely believe that God made this earth to sustain us and bring help and healing by His provision of these things. But I worship God, not things. I believe satan laughs up his sleeve as he toys with our minds so that we get confused and begin believing in ghosts (they are NOT spirits of the dead but demonic spirits masquerading to confuse you) rather than in Jesus Christ. We are letting ourselves get taken in by heresies and heretics! We don’t have to fall for it! We have the truth in the Bible. We can read it for ourselves. We can study it for ourselves.
Dante asks Virgil what are these unguarded, open, burning graves?
Virgil answers: “When they return from Jehoshaphat above,” He answered, “bearing the bodies that they had, All shall be closed.”
Jehoshaphat (c. 873 – c. 849 BC) was a king of Judah during the reigns in Israel of Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jehoram, with whom he maintained close political and economic alliances. He reigned 25 years. The name means “Jehovah has judged”. He “walked in the ways” of his father or ancestor, King David. He spent the first years of his reign fortifying his kingdom against the Kingdom of Israel. His zeal in suppressing the idolatrous worship of the “high places” is commended in 2 Chronicles 17:6. He subsequently joined Jehoram of Israel in a war against the Moabites, who were under tribute to Israel. The Moabites were subdued, but seeing Mesha’s act of offering his own son as a human sacrifice on the walls of Kir of Moab filled Jehoshaphat with horror, and he withdrew and returned to his own land (2 Kings 3:4–27). Jehoshaphat organized a missionary movement by sending out his officers, the priests, and the Levites to instruct the people throughout the land in the Law of Yhwh, the king himself delivering sermons.
The “Valley of Jehoshaphat” is a valley between Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives where the Last Judgment is to take place.
Joel 3:1-2;9-16 (BSB) 1 “Yes, in those days and at that time,
when I restore Judah and Jerusalem from captivity,
2 I will gather all the nations
and bring them down to the Valley of Jehoshaphat.
There I will enter into judgment against them
concerning My people, My inheritance, Israel,
whom they have scattered among the nations
as they divided up My land…
9 Proclaim this among the nations:
“Prepare for war;
rouse the mighty men;
let all the men of war
advance and attack!
10 Beat your plowshares into swords
and your pruning hooks into spears.
Let the weak say, ‘I am strong!’
11 Come quickly, all you surrounding nations,
and gather yourselves.
Bring down Your mighty ones,
O LORD.
12 Let the nations be roused
and advance to the Valley of Jehoshaphat,
for there I will sit down
to judge all the nations on every side.
13 Swing the sickle,
for the harvest is ripe.
Come, trample the grapes,
for the winepress is full;
the wine vats overflow
because their wickedness is great.
14 Multitudes, multitudes
in the valley of decision!
For the Day of the LORD is near
in the valley of decision.
15 The sun and moon will grow dark,
and the stars will no longer shine.
16 The LORD will roar from Zion
and raise His voice from Jerusalem;
heaven and earth will tremble.
But the LORD will be a refuge for His people,
a stronghold for the people of Israel.
This may describe the place where, in the presence of King Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, God annihilated the Gentile coalition of Moab, Ammon and Edom. This may indicate an actual valley (about eleven miles from Jerusalem). Or it may be an indeterminate valley but where judgment takes place. In Christian thinking, the assembly of the multitudes waiting in the valley of decision is associated with the second advent of Christ.
So what Dante, the poet, is referring to is when Jesus returns. Our spirits will rejoin our resurrected and immortal bodies at the Valley of Decision or Judgement (Jehoshaphat) and we will join Christ or be given our eternal judgment and forever punishment.
“When they return from Jehoshaphat above,”
He answered, “bearing the bodies that they had,
All shall be closed. Here Epicurus lies
With all his followers, who call the soul dead
When the flesh died.”
Epicurus (341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and sage who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy. His was a materialist philosophy and his followers believed in a life of pleasure and indulgence because there was no afterlife. He advocated that people were best able to pursue philosophy by living a self-sufficient life surrounded by friends. He taught that the root of all human neurosis is death denial and the tendency for human beings to assume that death will be horrific and painful, which he claimed causes unnecessary anxiety, selfish self-protective behaviors, and hypocrisy. According to Epicurus, death is the end of both the body and the soul and therefore should not be feared. Epicurus taught that although the gods exist, they have no involvement in human affairs. He taught that people should behave ethically not because the gods punish or reward people for their actions, but because amoral behavior will burden them with guilt and prevent them from attaining ataraxia, peace and freedom from fear. – Wikipedia
Epicurus was a pagan and his denial of an afterlife made him a heretic. His philosophy was antithetical to Christian doctrine. His denial of sin, of eternal life, of God makes his philosophy completely at odds with the core doctrines of Christianity. Therefore, Dante has Epicurus and his fellow Epicureans suffering the heretics punishment in Hell.
Titus 1:5-16 (NLT) 5 The reason I left you in Crete was that you would set in order what was unfinished and appoint elders in every town, as I directed you. 6 An elder must be blameless, the husband of but one wife, having children who are believers and who are not open to accusation of indiscretion or insubordination. 7 As God’s steward, an overseer must be above reproach—not self-absorbed, not quick-tempered, not given to drunkenness, not violent, not greedy for money. 8 Instead, he must be hospitable, a lover of good, self-controlled, upright, holy, and disciplined. 9 He must hold firmly to the faithful word as it was taught, so that he can encourage others by sound teaching and refute those who contradict it.
10 For many are rebellious and full of empty talk and deception, especially those of the circumcision, 11 who must be silenced. For the sake of dishonorable gain, they undermine entire households and teach things they should not. 12 As one of their own prophets has said, “Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, lazy gluttons.” 13 This testimony is true. Therefore rebuke them sternly, so that they will be sound in the faith 14 and will pay no attention to Jewish myths or to the commands of men who have rejected the truth. 15 To the pure, all things are pure; but to the defiled and unbelieving, nothing is pure. Indeed, both their minds and their consciences are defiled. 16 They profess to know God, but by their actions they deny Him. They are detestable, disobedient, and unfit for any good deed.
The Apostle Paul was writing to Titus and explaining about what to look for in an elder of the church, a church leader. One of the things he specifically mentions is one who will “hold firmly to the faithful word as it was taught so that he can encourage others by sound teaching”. He goes on to discuss a serious problem facing the new Christians. Some were teaching that Gentiles should be circumcised like a Jew if they accept Jesus as their Savior. Paul was trying to explain to his churches that you don’t have to become a Jew to be a Christian. Jews and Gentiles can become Christians without following the old Laws. If you read the entire New Testament, you would get the picture of why it was no longer necessary to follow the Laws in the Old Covenant because Jesus brought a New and Better Covenant! I won’t go into all that here but all the Apostles dealt with this heresy in their letters to their churches and so it was a recurring problem.
As Virgil and Dante move past the Epicurean section of the burning cemetery while talking, a voice calls out…
“O Tuscan! –
Who travel alive through this, the city of fire,
While speaking in so courteous a fashion –
If it should please you, stop a moment here,
Your way of speaking shows that you were born
In the same noble fatherland: there were
I possibly have wrought excessive harm.”
This sound erupted from a coffer of stone –
Farinata degli Uberti was a Florentine aristocrat and military leader, a member of the Ghibellines, had been of the Epicurean philosophy. When the Guelphs took power again, ousting the Ghibellines, Farinata’s family holdings were destroyed. Remember Dante and his family were Guelphs. Virgil tells Dante to go talk to the man who is now sitting upright in his flaming tomb. So they wend themselves through the sepulchres to the foot of this man’s tomb.
At his tomb’s foot, I felt his proud gaze pierce
Mine for a moment; and then as if in disdain
He spoke and asked me, “Who were your ancestors?”
Eager to comply with that, I made all plain,
Concealing nothing: whereupon he raised
His brows a little. Then he said, “These men
Were enemies to me; they fiercely opposed
Me and my forebears and my party-so, twice,
I scattered them.” “If ousted and abused,”
I answered, “they returned to claim their place
From every quarter; yours have not learned that art
Of return so well,”
Notice how this shade is sitting in a burning sepulchre in Hell at the feet of Dante but his pride is not diminished. He is still so self absorbed and arrogant. Knowing the Epicureans did not believe in Jesus Christ, His resurrection from the dead, or in an eternal afterlife… it’s ironic that Dante has Farinata’s shade rising from tomb in the afterlife of Hell!
Then suddenly the face
Of a shade appeared beside him, showing the part
from the chin up – I think through having risen
Erect on his knees: his gaze began to dart
Anxiously round me, as though in expectation
Of someone with me. But when that hope was gone
He wept: “If you can journey through this blind prison
By virtue of high genius – where is my son,
And why is he not with you?” And my rejoinder:
“My own strength has not brought me, but that of one
Who guides me through here, and is waiting yonder –
Toward one your Guido perhaps had scorned.”
I well deduced his name from his words and from his manner
Of punishment, and thus could answer in full.
Suddenly straightening up, the shade cried out,
“What? – Did I hear you say he ‘had’? Oh tell:
Is he not still alive? Does the sweet light
Not strike his eyes?” Perceiving my delay
In giving any answer, he fell back flat
Face upward, appearing no more.
This second shade is Cavalcante de’ Cavalcanti who was also a noble, less involved in Florentine politics than Farinata. Uberti and Cavalcanti were Florentine magnates. Cavalcante’s son, Guido, was Dante’s “first friend” and Guido married Farinata’s daughter. Guido was an intellectual and poet but he and Dante had divergent views. In Dante’s youthful poem about friendship:
Guido, I wish that Lapo, you, and I
were carried off by some enchanter’s spell
and set upon a ship to sail the sea…
The listed magnates were excluded from Florentine governance by the Ordinamenti di Giustizia of 1293. Who were magnates? A law of October 1286 defined them as those houses which had included a knight within the past twenty years. In effect, magnate status was defined by knighthood and a past record of violence, implied by their posting security. – Lansing, The Florentine Magnates
When the Ordinamenti di Giustizia of 1293 went into effect, Dante was 27 years old. His family was not excluded by the Ordinamenti, as it did not then possess sufficient wealth or social standing. The Cavalcanti family, however, was listed among the magnates and was excluded from governance. This meant, Dante was able to participate in the Florentine government, and served as a prior, while Guido Cavalcanti could not. This may have caused a rift between the friends. Dante’s time as prior led to his exile.
In Inferno Canto X, Dante, the pilgrim, leaves Guido’s destiny ambiguous and the father sort of makes his own mind up. Dante says nothing about Guido but the father takes his nothing and makes it into something. Now we go back to Farinata degli Uberti, who has taken no notice of the shade who shares his tomb. Remember, it’s all about HIM, so he ignores Cavalcanti’s interruption.
But not so he,
The great soul at whose beckoning I had paused;
He did not change his features in any way,
Nor bend his neck or waist. “The point you raised – “
He resumed where interrupted: “My kin not good
At learning that art – I feel more agonized
By that accursed fact than by this bed.
But when the Lady’s face who rules this place
Has kindled fewer than fifty times,” he said,
“Then you will know how heavy that art weighs.
Now tell me (may you regain the sweet world’s vantage),
Why is that people so fierce in its decrees
Toward my kin?” I answered, “It was the carnage
And devastation that dyed the Arbia red
Which made the prayers in our temple savage.”
Shaking hs head, “I was not alone,” he sighed,
“And surely I would not have chosen to join
The others without some cause, but where all agreed
To level Florence – there, I was alone:
One, who defended her before them all.”
Dante and Farinata weaponize their words, hurting each other by what they say to each other. Farinata had told Dante that his family had won victories and exiled Dante’s family. Dante now tells Farinata that his family has now been cast out of Florence and have not returned. Farinata says this causes him more suffering than his burning tomb in Hell! Farinata thrusts another verbal sword at Dante by telling him he will also be exiled in 50 months (moons) and will know what it’s like.
Dante asks him how he can know the future (his prophecy about Dante) but doesn’t know the present (his family being exiled)?
I said, “If I hear rightly, you seem to foresee
What time will bring, and yet you seem to deal
Differently with the present.” He answered me:
“Like someone with faulty vision, we can behold
Remote things well, for so much light does He
Who rules supreme still grant us; but we are foiled
When things draw near us, and our intelligence
Is useless when they are present. So of your world
In its present state, we have no evidence
Or knowledge, except if others bring us word:
Thus you can understand that with no sense
Left to us, all our knowledge will be dead
From that Moment when the future’s door is shut.”
The shades here in Hell are far-sighted. They can see things in the future but cannot see things in the present. Once God comes, judgment occurs, and time will be no more, they will see nothing.
Next Dante asks Farinata who else is there with him and Farinata says:
“I lie with over a thousand of the dead;
The second Frederick is among the number,
And the Cardinal; of others I will not speak.”
With that he hid himself.
Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (1194-1250), King of Sicily and Naples (1212-50) was an Epicurean.
Ottaviano degli Ubaldini was brother of Ubaldino della Pila and uncle of the Archbishop Ruggieri. He was made Bishop of Bologna in 1240, at a young age, by Pope Gregory IX, and in 1244 he was created Cardinal by Pope Innocent IV at the Council of Lyons. He died in 1272. He was said to support the imperial party and had said he lost his soul to the Ghibellines.
The Ghibellines supported the Holy Roman Empire, the imperial power. The Guelphs supported the Roman Sea, the Papal power and was the church party.
He turned to the left; and leaving the city wall
Behind our backs we continued on our way
Toward the center which was now our goal,
Following a path that strikes the valley floor:
And from that valley rose an odor so foul
The stench repelled us even high up there.
Excerpts of Inferno are from a new translation by Robert Pinsky.
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